CHAPTER 2 THE SURVEY OF LOCAL AND INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE

2.1           INTRODUCTION

2.1.1         This chapter presents the findings of Task 1 of the study: the local and overseas review. Task 1 was undertaken in late 2001 to early 2002, and the findings on overseas studies presented herein were current at that date.

2.2           REVIEW OF LOCAL EXPERIENCE

                 Introduction

2.2.1         This section of the report reviews recent local experience in the fields of :

2.2.2         The objectives of the review of local experience are to:

                 Landscape and Townscape Mapping, Assessment and Description in Hong Kong

2.2.3         There is no single published work of landscape classification and assessment for the entire area of Hong Kong. The work which has been carried out and the analysis of landscape at a strategic level includes:

               Territorial Development Strategy Review (1996)

2.2.4         The 1996 Territorial Development Strategy Review (TDSR) includes a strategy for the landscape of Hong Kong. The landscape of Hong Kong is mapped and divided into a series of broad types. The TDSR’s landscape classification system covers both descriptive and evaluative content within the description of each landscape type (presumably to aid brevity of presentation), as follows: 

2.2.5        Each of the classifications corresponds to a broad development or conservation strategy which covers that area. It is notable that urban areas are excluded from this analysis. The strategy includes the following categories:

2.2.6         In addition, the TDSR also identifies a number of new areas proposed for conservation/protection.

Sub-Regional Planning and Development Studies

2.2.7         Planning and development studies are periodically carried out for the sub-regional areas in order to translate the territorial planning visions into more specific planning objectives. There are five sub-regional areas, namely:

Metroplan

2.2.8         Landscape - The Metroplan Landscape Strategy for the Urban Fringe and Coastal Areas (MLS) (1989) was prepared as a component of the Metroplan, the strategic planning document for the main urban areas of Hong Kong and Kowloon. The objective of the MLS was "to provide a comprehensive framework for landscape conservation and enhancement of the Metropolitan urban fringe and coastal areas"

2.2.9        The MLS began with a landscape appraisal during which both physical and visual landscape features were mapped. This in turn is used to develop a strategy plan which identifies:

2.2.10       The document provides a brief description of the key attributes of those areas covered by the above classification, identifies where the value or otherwise lies and proposes prescriptions for those areas.

2.2.11       The MLS also deals with recreation potential within the Study Area and deals in detail with the rehabilitation of a number of key degraded and recreational sites.               

2.2.12       Townscape - Metroplan provides an analysis of the urban context of Hong Kong, which identifies the following areas:

2.2.13       This plan is useful in that it integrates at a simple level landscape issues with the urban design context.

2.2.14       In addition, the Urban Design Statement – Key Plan of Metroplan provides a mapped analysis of the urban area together with an outline strategy, largely in terms of existing land use. Categories which are mapped include:

2.2.15       This plan is notable for its references to visual qualities and its integration of landscape issues with urban design issues.

Planning and Development Study on Hong Kong Island South and Lamma Island (2004)

2.2.16       The Planning and Development on Study on Hong Kong Island South and Lamma Island contains a stand-alone 'Landscape Value Appraisal’ Report. The report presents a comprehensive breakdown of the Study area into local ‘landscape character areas' (LCAs) with corresponding descriptions, rating of landscape sensitivity and detailed landscape planning guidelines for each LCA. There is also a broad landscape strategy for each LCA. Major landscape features are mapped (though woodland mapping is not presented in this report). The Landscape Appraisal Plan also identifies recreational provision and potential. Photographs of selected features are provided in the EIA report.

Planning and Development Study on North-east New Territories (2002)

2.2.17       The Planning and Development on Study on the North-east New Territories contains a fairly comprehensive description, mapping and evaluation of the landscape of the North-east New Territories (Technical Papers 6 and 7). Woodland is mapped and the landscape is broken down into Landscape Character Units (LCUs). The LCU's are in effect 'landscape character areas' and are accompanied by descriptions of features and landscape character, together with photographs of selected features. These LCU's are also assigned a value from 'low' through to 'high'.

Planning and Development Study on North-west New Territories (2003)

2.2.18       The Planning and Development Study on the North-west New Territories contains a limited description and mapping of the landscape of the North-west New Territories. Key landscape elements are mapped (woodland, topography and hydrological features). There is no mapping or classification of landscape types or landscape character.

Study on South-east New Territories Development Strategy Review (2001)

2.2.19       The Planning and Development on Study on the South-east New Territories contains a fairly comprehensive description of landscape character and quality, mapping and evaluation of the landscape of the South-east New Territories. Major landscape features are mapped and landscape is broken down into Landscape Character Units (LCUs). The LCUs are in effect ‘landscape character areas’ and are accompanied by appropriate descriptions of features and landscape character, together with photographs of landscape context and selected features. These LCUs are also assigned an evaluation from 'low' through to 'high'. Prescriptive strategic actions for landscape are included in the 'Tourism and Recreation Framework'. 

South-west New Territories Development Strategy Review (2001)

2.2.20       The South-west New Territories Planning and Development Study contains only limited reference to landscape values, as part of a wider conservation strategy. It identifies existing Country Park and proposed extensions as well as SSSIs, features of ecological interest and features of heritage interest. There are brief landscape descriptions within the Tourism and Recreation Proposals. 

Development Statements for the Urban Areas

2.2.21       Development statements have thus far been prepared for the following urban areas of Hong Kong and Kowloon:

2.2.22       Amongst other subjects, these statements develop the objectives for landscape and urban design established by Metroplan. Most therefore include (to some extent) an analysis of the landscape and townscape characteristics of their areas.

Hong Kong Island West Development Statement (1999)

2.2.23       Landscape - The Hong Kong Island West Development Statement provides a written description and analysis of the landscape of the Study area and provides an action plan which is linked to open space; recreation; pedestrian movement and streetscape and environmental objectives. Landscape is mapped largely in terms of the broad categories used in the Metroplan Landscape Strategy for the Urban Fringe and Coastal Areas. It also includes an action plan for future landscape improvements.              

2.2.24       Townscape - The urban environment is analysed (in the text) in terms of: 

2.2.25       Mapping of the existing qualities of the urban area includes:

Tsuen Wan/Kwai Tsing Development Statement (1992)

2.2.26      Landscape - The Urban Design, Landscape, Open Space and Recreational Frameworks Report for the study provides an analysis of landscape issues. This comprises an analysis of fung shui characteristics. A number of key landscape character areas are identified on relevant plans and described in the text with a limited amount of illustrative material. Specific key issues and problems are identified.

2.2.27       Key landscape areas are examined in more detail in a series of landscape studies focusing on the key landscape areas whereby key resources are mapped and described and photographed.

2.2.28       Townscape - The report provides a textual description of the character of the urban area, with a series of analysis plans based on function, including:

2.2.29       Elsewhere, the urban area is analysed in terms of:

2.2.30       Other analysis is based on form and includes:

2.2.31       Detailed design studies analyse local areas in terms of key view corridors and landmarks/major focal points/minor destinations and linkages.

South-east Kowloon Development Statement (1993)

2.2.32       Landscape – The South-east Kowloon Development Statement (SEKDS) does not offer a significant analysis or description of existing landscape conditions or features other than solid geology and shoreline conditions.

2.2.33       Townscape - There is a comprehensive mapping and description of land-use, geology, building height, building age, building condition and plot ratio. There is however no analysis of the less tangible, or aesthetic qualities of the SEKDS area.                

2.2.34       The report contains extensive landscape and urban design proposals for the new SEKDS area.

West Kowloon Development Statement (1993)

2.2.35       Landscape – The West Kowloon Development Statement contains a brief description of the key landscape characteristics of the area. A small number of key landscape issues are noted on plans included in the study.

2.2.36       Townscape - The report contains a brief description of the key urban design characteristics of the area. Key problems and shortcomings are noted. A small number of key urban design issues are noted on plans included in the study.

Central and East Kowloon Development Statement (1998)

2.2.37       Landscape – The Central and East Kowloon Development Statement provides a brief textual analysis of different land uses, which cover a number of landscape issues, including quarries, waterfront areas, undeveloped land, open space.                

2.2.38       Townscape - There is analysis in plan format of building age and building height. Brief text identifies key urban design issues in terms of:

2.2.39       Detailed urban design and landscape proposals are made for selected areas within the study area as well as a Landscape, Recreation and Pedestrian Circulation Action Plan for the entire area.

Government Technical Studies

Environmental Impacts Assessments (EIAs)

2.2.40       Landscape and visual impact assessments (LVIAs) have been carried out in Hong Kong for a number of years as part of the wider EIA process. Predominant professional practice has been to identify impacts on landscape character as part of which an analysis of existing landscape character and resources is required. 

2.2.41       Preparation of LVIAs was formalised under the Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance (Ord.No.9 of 1997) and its accompanying Technical Memorandum in 1998. Prior to this, there was considerable variation in the amount and quality of data included in LVIAs. After the Ordinance came into force, there has been a more consistent level of recorded data on landscape resources and character. Yet there remain often considerable differences in depth and scale of data recording between different projects (as is inevitable where projects are of different scales). An example of these discrepancies is in the recording of landscape units and landscape character. Certain LVIAs include landscape character areas only. Others use what could more accurately be described as landscape character types. Even in the case of LCAs, there is often a difference in the scale at which they are recorded (which is a legitimate professional decision made on the basis of the scale and type of the landscape, the scale of the project and the judgment of the professionals concerned).

2.2.42       Further problems with using LVIAs as a data source on landscape include their patchy coverage and the fact that many are now partly out of date, having been superseded by the pace of development in Hong Kong.

Other Government Studies

2.2.43       Other studies commissioned by Government may contain relevant data on landscape resources and character. In particular, the new town studies often contain assessments of pre-existing landscape conditions, many of these in considerable detail, such as the Tai Po Landscape and Recreation Study in 1979. Such studies are useful in offering methodological insight and in identifying a scale which might be most appropriate for landscape assessment in Hong Kong. However, in most cases, the landscape has changed so much after the construction of the new town, that the actual data within the studies is of only limited value.

Other Literature

2.2.44       In addition to Government commissioned technical studies and research, there remains a limited literature produced for the general public on the Hong Kong landscape and townscape. These fall broadly into technical literature and ‘recreational’ literature. Useful technical literature includes general studies on the geography and ecology of Hong Kong, such as Hills and Streams, An Ecology of Hong Kong (Dudgeon and Corlett, 1994), A Geography of Hong Kong (Chiu, 1983), The Soils and Agriculture of Hong Kong (Grant, 1962). The former Urban Council of the Hong Kong Government also published an extremely useful series of technical guides on the flora, fauna and earth sciences of Hong Kong.

2.2.45       Of the 'recreational literature', a number of studies in English have been produced which offer insights, descriptions and secondary historical information on the Hong Kong landscape. Of particular note are ‘The Hong Kong Countryside’ (Herklots, 1951), 'Hong Kong's Wild Places' (Stokes, 1995), 'Across Hong Kong Island' (Stokes, 1998), the 'Coastal Guides Series' (Friends of the Earth, various), and ‘The Green Dragon’ (Williams ed., 1994). The particularly informed guide on the Maclehose Trail, 'Hong Kong Landscapes: Along the Maclehose Trail' by Owen and Shaw contains much useful information, particularly on landscape geology and topography.

2.2.46       Covering the urban area, there are few non-historical books which deal with the urban landscape. There are numerous pictorial books have been published aimed at the recreational reader, notably the 'Over Hong Kong' series. These provide a limited amount of useful information, although much is quickly out of date. A reference of interest is 'Mapping HK' (Gutierrez and Portefaix, 2000) which deals with the townscape of Hong Kong from a 'popular geography' approach.

2.2.47       Considerable historic data on the Hong Kong landscape and townscape is available in popular literary sources. These range from historic maps in ‘Mapping Hong Kong’ (Empson, 1992) to the series of historic photographs published by former Urban Services Council in ‘City of Victoria - A Selection of the Museum’s Historical Photographs’ (Ho ed., 1994).

2.2.48       In summary, the technical literature relevant to the Hong Kong landscape provides useful supplementary material or commentary, which is of considerable help in the Study. Of the recreational literature, those documenting the history of the townscape and landscape through maps, photographs and paintings are of considerable use in tracing the development of the Hong Kong landscape and townscape. Other literature is of some value, though this is limited by an often unscientific approach, piece-meal coverage and by the fact that in Hong-Kong’s rapidly changing landscape, much of it is quickly out-of-date.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) In Hong Kong

2.2.49       GIS is an established technology widely used throughout Hong Kong within Government departments and bureaux, companies and educational institutions. A variety of data exists within these organisations which unfortunately, because of different project requirements and the lack of a commonly adopted data standard, is of varying quality. 

2.2.50       Within Government it is often difficult to find out what data exists. This is partially due to the fact that the potential value of data to external parties is not recognised by the custodians with the result that they rarely publicise its existence. Fortunately, some departments such as the Lands Department (LandsD) have recognised that their data is valuable to others and have successfully implemented mechanisms for data distribution. Other initiatives such as HPLB's Data Alignment Strategy aim to make organisations aware of the availability and location of public data. A variety of GIS software systems are being used in Hong Kong, the main two of which are ESRI's ArcGIS suite and Integraph's GeoMedia range of products.

2.2.51       The main Government departments with significant GIS capabilities include CSD, DSD, FSD, HKPF, HA/HD, WSD, LandsD, PlanD, CEDD, AFCD, EPD, TD and HyD. Of these, LandsD was among the first to recognise the benefit of storing data in GIS format. Over the last decade, it has converted topographic survey maps at scales of 1:1,000-1:50,000 to GIS format. PlanD have also led the field with a number of studies, this one included, with important GIS outputs. As different data-sets are made available, they can be used to assist with other projects drastically reducing the time needed to complete them. For example this project is likely to use outputs from SUSDEV21 such as habitat maps and digitised archaeological site boundaries. The expense of having to reproduce these, while not considerable, is still significant. This common element of cost saving seems to be one of the main attractions in using GIS to assist with projects.

2.2.52       GIS based projects that have been conducted in Hong Kong range in size from project level to territory-wide. The level of detail also varies greatly. Projects conducted by Government with a GIS component include LandsD’s topographic data capture program, PlanD's SUSDEV21, CEDD’s many natural terrain hazard studies, EPD's efforts in noise and air modelling and also dredging studies, TD's and HyD's projects for asset management and intelligent transport systems and AFCD’s habitat mapping work. Numerous other examples exist and the above examples serve to illustrate the variety in application of GIS technology.

Ecological Data Sources In Hong Kong

Introduction

2.2.53       Maps that show the extent of ecosystems and habitats and locate species records can be a useful indication of possible high value landscapes, because in general high value habitats are often natural in appearance. However caution is required in interpreting ecological maps in terms of landscape value. Although many natural landscapes (for example mature forests of native species) are considered to be highly attractive and are also of high ecological value, some places that would normally be considered eye-sores (for example derelict industrial sites) may be colonised by rare flora and fauna and may also develop high ecological value. Conversely, apparently natural-looking landscapes (for example forests of planted non-native trees or some reservoirs) may have relatively low ecological value but may be highly valued for their appearance.

Hong Kong Experience

2.2.54       No comprehensive, territory-wide survey of habitats based on site visits has been undertaken, however the World Wide Fund for Nature Hong Kong (formerly the World Wildlife Fund Hong Kong) (WWFHK) (1989 - data published 1993) have used aerial photography to map habitats at 1:50,000 scale. This work has proven useful in determining the extent and location of extensive vegetation belts (for example upland forests and grasslands) but is of limited use in identifying small scale features and is now rather outdated. SUSDEV21 (2000) also maps habitats on a territory-wide basis, but shows greater detail than the WWFHK study. 

2.2.55       Government maintains a schedule of Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) which are designated for their ecological or geological importance. SSSIs are shown on Outline Zoning Plans (OZPs). Many of the SSSIs are natural features of both high ecological and landscape value (for example Ma On Shan). Others (for example some egretries) may not be of outstanding landscape value, being only one of several similar features in a particular district.

2.2.56       The Department of Biodiversity and Ecology of The University of Hong Kong in 1999 undertook a territory-wide study of biodiversity (entitled A Biodiversity Survey of Hong Kong). Although coverage is variable, records of species of flora and fauna, some common and others rare, are shown on plans. Rare species (most notably trees) particularly those associated with ancient habitats (mainly woodland) may be of use in identifying wooded landscapes of outstanding value.

2.2.57       AFCD have commissioned a Wetland Compensation Study, which includes a territory-wide survey of wetlands. The larger wetlands (for example Mai Po and Long Valley) are relatively well known and form distinct landscapes. Much of Hong Kong’s wetland consists of small fragmented sites (for example abandoned paddies in villages) which may not have the obvious appearance of a wetland or which may be intimately associated with another landscape type (for example an abandoned paddy as a clearing in a secondary forest). Such small wetland sites may not be large enough to be considered a distinct landscape division.

2.2.58       The sub-regional strategic planning studies commissioned by PlanD (for example those for NWNT, NENT and SENT) usually shows sites of high ecological importance in each region. These studies identify countryside areas often considered worthy of conservation on the basis of ‘naturalness’ which implies high ecological value. Usually these areas are also of outstanding scenic beauty (for example much of the Sai Kung coastal area is both visually attractive and of ecological value).

2.2.59       There are many EIAs which include mapping and evaluation of habitats within 500m of the project boundary. In the case of large infrastructure projects this means that the area mapped may be extensive. However such studies are likely to be of limited value in territory-wide landscape value mapping unless previously unknown or little appreciated features are identified.

Hong Kong Experience

2.2.60       In conclusion, the most useful references on the mapping of habitats in Hong Kong are as follows:

Historic / Cultural Data Sources In Hong Kong

Introduction

2.2.61       With the exception of the Antiquities and Monuments Office (AMO), who hold some digital data and a few project specific databases, mapping of cultural heritage resources in Hong Kong has been carried out manually by professionals, cultural heritage organisations, Government departments such as the Hong Kong Archaeological Society, the Public Record Office, Lands Department, local museums and local and overseas tertiary institutions. 

2.2.62       Since 1971, the AMO has been responsible for the management of the cultural heritage resources1 in Hong Kong. In the mid 1980s, a Territory Wide Archaeological Survey was undertaken to identify and map these archaeological resources2. While the results of this survey were the most comprehensive to that date, lack of resources meant that full coverage was unachievable.

2.2.63       In SUSDEV21 (2000), 67 declared monuments, 8 deemed monuments, 457 listed graded historical buildings and 206 archaeological sites from the 1990s surveys were input to a GIS. The purpose of this was to allow decision-making support to development planning to ensure that adverse impacts on sensitive cultural heritage areas could be avoided.

2.2.64       The sites collected under SUSDEV21 were considered those of most cultural heritage value. The remaining sites, which are held by AMO and not available for public viewing, are currently under review and it is possible that some may be upgraded to categories collected under SUSDEV21. Apart from AMO, the following organisations also hold maps of cultural heritage resources. 

The Hong Kong Archaeological Society

2.2.65       The society keeps all archaeological records from its research and keeps all the raw data from local archaeological investigations including maps, field records and archaeological finds for work carried out prior to 1971. The Society also publishes the Journal of Hong Kong Archaeological Society to present their archaeological and cultural heritage findings. However, since the Antiquities and Monument Ordinance (Cap. 53) was implemented in 1971 which states that the ownership of every relic discovered in Hong Kong after the commencement of the Ordinance belongs to the Government from the moment of discovery, all the post -1971 finds and archaeological investigation records of the Society are passed to AMO for record.

Public Record Office

2.2.66       The PRO keeps archives which have sufficient administrative, legal, financial or research value to be retained permanently. Archive materials include: military records, Japanese Administration archives during their occupation in Hong Kong, internment camp records, diaries, war-time records, old maps and old photographs of Hong Kong. 

Survey and Mapping Office of the Lands Department

2.2.67       The SMO keeps all maps prepared by the Government for various purposes. The earliest traceable maps date to 1840s. Maps which may contain information with some cultural heritage value include:

Local Museums

2.2.68       Museums often house various types of historical collections such as historical photographs, artefacts, maps, videos, old books etc. donated from private owners.

Local and Overseas Libraries

2.2.69       The best entry points for cultural heritage resources held in the libraries are the Hong Kong Special Collection Library in the University of Hong Kong and the Chinese University of Hong Kong. These libraries house comprehensive collections of historical materials related to Hong Kong including bibliographies, government publications and records, manuscripts, newspapers, directories, almanacs, pictures, biographies, audio-visual materials, microfilms, historical photos, posters related to Hong Kong, publications on Hong Kong history and theses on Hong Kong studies by undergraduates as well as postgraduates of the Universities, in which various kind of maps are contained.

2.2.70       Besides local libraries, overseas libraries and institutions also keep maps relating to Hong Kong in particular the military records and maps. The entry points include:

2.3           OVERSEAS CASE STUDIES                  

2.3.1         The Study Team have carried out an overview of overseas experience and researched six overseas case studies, in order to identify the range of possible approaches to landscape assessment currently in use world-wide.               

2.3.2         The Case Studies have been chosen primarily for their usefulness in defining an appropriate methodology for the current Hong Kong Study. They have therefore been selected by reference to a number of key criteria relevant to the Study on the basis that each criterion should be met by at least one case study:

2.3.3         Six case studies are presented in this report. Because the countries in which the field of landscape assessment is best developed are the USA, UK and New Zealand and because information in English is more readily available from these countries, five of the six case studies are drawn from them. A further Asian case study from Indonesia is also presented. The findings presented herein were current in early 2002.

2.3.4         The six case studies presented are:

2.3.5        The findings of each case study are presented under the following sub-headings:

Case Study 1 - Countryside Character Initiative, England, UK

Introduction and Background to the Assessment

2.3.6         The Countryside Character Initiative is the name for England’s national landscape assessment system, led by the Countryside Agency, the (UK) government’s adviser on countryside issues. The initiative is concerned with managing England’s countryside through an understanding of its character, which has evolved as a result of complex interactions between nature and human activity. Its aims are to help guide policy developments and national decision-making on landscape and countryside issues, and to give a context to local planning and land management initiatives by local authorities. Much of the Agency’s work on the initiative is undertaken in partnership with other government agencies, notably English Nature (the government’s adviser on nature conservation) and English Heritage (the government’s adviser on the historic environment). All three agencies report to the Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA).

2.3.7         The Countryside Character Initiative came about because it was recognised that there was a need for a new approach to landscape assessment, which would examine the whole of England’s countryside rather than just its finest landscapes (National Parks and Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty), upon which attention had focused in the past. Specifically, it is intended to provide a consistent national framework within which more detailed assessments by local authorities and others will fit.                 

2.3.8         The initiative has been ongoing for around five years. It began in the late 1990s when the Countryside Commission (the Agency's predecessor body) and English Nature prepared the Character of England map, which identified joint Character Areas for the whole of England. This combines the Countryside Commission’s Countryside Character Areas (CCAs) with English Nature’s Natural Areas. The map is accompanied by detailed descriptions of the unique landscape character of each of the 159 Character Areas and of the pressure for change within each area (Figure 2.1). The descriptions are published in eight regional volumes and are also available on the Agency’s website (www.countryside.gov.uk/cci/character).

2.3.9         More recently, the Agency has embarked upon the preparation of a National Countryside Character Database, the aim being to provide a robust landscape decision-making framework for use by the Agency at a strategic level. This GIS-based project has included the development of a National Landscape Typology for England comprising 75 generic Landscape Character Types (LCTs) and a total of 587 individual LCT areas across England. The principal outputs of this project, which is nearing completion, will be ArcView GIS maps of the LCTs and an Access database containing information on landscape character and landscape change within each LCT in England.

2.3.10       The Countryside Agency is also undertaking a wide range of associated project work on landscape and countryside character, including:

2.3.11       This case study focuses mainly on the National Countryside Character Database but also provides basic information about the related projects in so far as they are relevant to Hong Kong.

Assessment Methodology

Overview

2.3.12        The National Countryside Character Database has been prepared by Entec UK Ltd, a multi-disciplinary environmental consultancy. Entec has been supported by a team of specialist consultants with expertise in landscape character assessment, GIS and database development. The team also includes experts from the University of Reading who have advised on land use change. The study has taken just over two years to complete and has had a substantial consultancy budget.                

2.3.13       Although commissioned by the Countryside Agency, the Steering Group for the project includes a representative from DEFRA, reflecting the fact that one particular purpose of the Database is to help the Countryside Agency and DEFRA in the targeting of agri-environment scheme funding to achieve optimal landscape benefit. English Nature and English Heritage have also been very closely involved, providing data for use in development of the typology and for input to the database.               

2.3.14       The first main phase of the work involved using national GIS data-sets on ArcView to divide each of the 159 CCAs in England into distinct and relatively homogeneous LCTs. Each LCT was then further characterised using data from existing landscape character assessments, including over 100 more detailed assessments by local authorities and others. The character data were entered onto an Access database and linked to the GIS data relating to the LCTs into which the CCAs had been divided. Through this system, detailed information about the character of each CCA and its constituent LCTs can be readily reviewed and interrogated. The maps and database for one Countryside Agency region were subject to a process of review by Countryside Agency staff and local authority partners and revised in light of comments received. This review process will be extended to other regions in future.                

2.3.15       In parallel with the characterisation process, agricultural land use data collected by the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food were analysed to identify agricultural land use changes that had taken place between 1975 and 1995 (Figure 2.2). The data selected for the analysis were considered to be indicative of changes affecting the character and quality of the landscape. This aspect of the work was intended to inform the development of an indicator of change in countryside character.                   

2.3.16        The second phase of the project was to apply the environmental capital approach to the character data with a view to providing a rigorous and transparent process for evaluating landscapes and informing policy decisions. This part of the work will be developed further in future.

Approach to Classification and Description and Use of GIS

2.3.17        The new typology has been prepared on the basis that the particular combinations of characteristics that are the strongest determinants of countryside character occur in many different parts of the countryside, i.e. they are generic. These three determinants are physiography (relief and structural geology), land-cover (ecological character from the interpretation of soils, tree cover and farm type) and cultural patterns (historic settlement and land use).

2.3.18       Existing digital data-sets were used to prepare a series of standardised maps of these definitive attributes. These were overlain within the GIS and repeating patterns of physical, ecological and cultural elements were identified and mapped as Land Description Units (LDUs), which can be seen as the building blocks of the landscape. The LDUs in turn were grouped and used to develop the LCTs, each of which has a unique three-letter code, as follows:

2.3.19       A unique reference code was given to each of the 587 LCT areas by prefixing the three letter LCT code with the relevant CCA number.

2.3.20       The accompanying database is a relational database with a central table to hold simplified data and a complex system of 'look-up' tables that make the database more efficient and versatile. Data-sets were input from both mapped and written sources at the LCT area scale. They included definitive attribute data from the classification process described above and descriptive attribute data from landscape character assessment reports and other sources (these latter sources, which can be unreliable, were given a confidence score). Descriptive attribute data included:

2.3.21       Finally, the impacts of agricultural change on landscape character were explored using time-series agricultural census data. The study identified three key indicators:

2.3.22       An analysis was made of the extent and magnitude of change in these three indicators and the results were also fed into the countryside character database. The system can be interrogated to show the patterns of landscape change across the country.

Approach to Evaluation

2.3.23       In two CCAs, the environmental capital approach was used to evaluate the landscape character data with a view to informing decision-making on the landscape. Environmental capital is a new, integrated decision-making tool that covers all aspects of the environment. It has been developed jointly by the four conservation agencies in England: the Countryside Agency, English Nature, English Heritage and the Environment Agency and has recently been expanded to cover social and economic as well as environmental considerations3. It offers a systematic way of recording which landscape areas and features (attributes) matter to people and why, by analysing the services (benefits) that they provide. For example, a landscape area or feature may be a local landmark, a valued habitat or a recreational resource. The approach helps place values on the commonplace as well as the unusual and rare; and allows stakeholder values to be seen alongside scientific and professional values.

2.3.24       TFor the National Countryside Character Database project, a tailored version of the methodology was developed and was tested by the consultants in the two pilot CCAs. The first step was to draw up a generic list of landscape benefits. Then, using the information from the CCA descriptions and the landscape character database, attributes that could provide those benefits were identified. Analysis of other aspects of environmental capital, namely importance, “enoughness” and trends relative to target was also undertaken. The findings were tested through discussions with local staff of the conservation agencies and local authorities. The result of these discussions was the recognition that further work was required to refine the methodology for use in conjunction with the Database.

Public Participation

2.3.25       Rather than developing an explicit public participation programme, the Countryside Character Initiative includes the values of the public and stakeholders in various implicit ways:-

Outputs of the Assessment

2.3.26       The National Countryside Character Database provides the first full, objective and consistent landscape baseline for England. It is an integrated assessment that is based upon and includes robust information on the physical, ecological and cultural character of the landscape and that can be readily expanded and updated. However, it does not pay explicit attention to the visual and perceptual character of the landscape. In this respect, it complements the Character of England map, which focuses more strongly on visual character and regional identity.

2.3.27       The assessment clearly separates the process of characterisation from evaluation. However the evaluative component of the project is not yet well developed, for two main reasons. The first is that the environmental capital approach tends to be difficult and time-consuming to apply. Although the principles and aims are laudable, in practice it is cumbersome to use and does not readily yield clear advice on comparative landscape values. The second possible reason that the pilot evaluation was unsuccessful was that it was carried out mainly by the consultants rather than by local stakeholders. In future a more strategic approach to evaluation is likely to be adopted4, with greater stakeholder involvement.

2.3.28       In terms of applications, it is still too early to comment, as the Database is only now nearing completion (early 2002). However it is widely welcomed. Key uses will be as a starting point and framework for new and updated local authority landscape character assessments; as a baseline for monitoring landscape change at national level5; and as a tool for targeting and evaluating the effectiveness of agri-environment and other landscape expenditure. It remains to be seen exactly how it will perform for each of these purposes.

2.3.29       The Countryside Agency plans a new project, starting in early 2002, to develop the Database further. The aims of that project are expected to include refinement of the typology and the database; further development of the environmental capital approach; and further development of indicators of change in countryside character and countryside quality to meet the requirements of the English Rural White Paper6.

Applicability to Hong Kong

2.3.30       The Countryside Character Initiative as a whole contains much that is of relevance to Hong Kong. Strengths of the English system are that:

2.3.31       The National Countryside Character Database may provide a useful model for GIS mapping and database development in Hong Kong, especially in relation to the choice of definitive and descriptive landscape attributes for landscape classification and description. The work on indicators is also of some relevance. However, the case study suggests that an evaluation system based on the environmental capital should be approached with caution.

2.3.32       The assessment is relatively broad-brush and in that sense is different to the detailed assessment being undertaken in Hong Kong. It copes well with a wide diversity of landscape types, but yields little useful information on how to tackle urban landscape assessment.

Case Study 2 - LANDMAP Information System, Wales, UK

2.3.33       The Countryside Council for Wales (CCW) is the statutory adviser to government on sustaining natural beauty, wildlife and the opportunity for outdoor enjoyment throughout Wales. Since the late 1990’s, CCW has collaborated with many organisations in Wales (through the Wales Landscape Partnership Group) to develop a single, robust method of assessing landscape.

2.3.34       The method, which is known as LANDMAP8, is undertaken at county level and is based on creating a pool of landscape information stored in a GIS. The information is gathered, organised and evaluated into a nationally consistent dataset, with a step-by-step approach allowing judgments about the landscape to be traced back to their source. Central to the philosophy of LANDMAP is the assumption that specific landscape qualities such as biodiversity and history can each be examined in turn and then (if required) amalgamated into discrete landscape character areas.

2.3.35       The LANDMAP approach actively involves in the assessment process many of the stakeholders who already possess information relevant to the sustainable management of landscapes (Figure 2.3). The aim is to produce an assessment that is commonly ‘owned’, by sharing information and working together on the LANDMAP assessment. However, in practical terms, local authorities and national park authorities in partnership with CCW take the lead in preparing LANDMAP assessments. Assessments have been completed or are underway for most local authority areas in Wales; they cover both rural and urban areas. The remaining six authorities should commence their assessments in 2002. CCW is responsible for quality assurance of the assessments.

2.3.36       Overall, LANDMAP may be described as a decision-support system that can be used by a variety of users for a variety of purposes. These include identification of special landscapes for designation; development plan preparation; development control; preparation of land management plans, countryside strategies, local biodiversity action plans and plans for management of historic landscapes; indicative forestry strategies; and agri-environment schemes. The LANDMAP information system has received awards from the UK Landscape Institute and the Council of Europe in recognition of its innovative approach to landscape planning.

Assessment Methodology

Overview

2.3.37       A typical LANDMAP study takes around 18 months to complete and the normal working scale is 1:10,000. The software packages used are MapInfo and Microsoft Access. Much of the work is undertaken through desk study although some aspects do require field survey. The core team for the project includes a dedicated manager, an information co-ordinator and a CCW officer, advised by steering group members. However, the specialist work is undertaken by experts (Aspect Specialists) in the relevant disciplines, who may be drawn either from the Wales Landscape Partnership Group or from consultancy. They are selected, trained and approved by CCW. The local authority and CCW usually fund the work jointly.

2.3.38       The LANDMAP information system comprises:

2.3.39       There are effectively six stages in the assessment process. The first stage brings all the information providers and users together, forming a steering group chaired by the local authority. This group drives and sustains the assessment process. The second stage involves compilation on GIS of the contextual information on the spatial form and land use function of all land within the study area, using pre-determined hierarchical classification systems (Figure 2.4). In the third stage of the work, specialists in each particular Aspect classify and evaluate the land within the study area; this information is mapped and entered onto a database. As a fourth stage, LANDMAP requires a public perception study to identify the public landscape values, local identity and priorities for landscape change. The fifth stage of the assessment, which is optional, is integrated landscape characterisation and evaluation. The final stage, again optional, is to produce written information products such as landscape assessments, landscape strategies and action programmes that draw on management recommendations.

Approach to Classification, Description and Evaluation

2.3.40       These three tasks are integrated for each of the Aspects. To ensure consistency, there is a standard data capture form and a pre-defined typology for each Aspect. The typology is in the form of a hierarchical classification system for the Aspect. Generally there are four levels. For example for the Biodiversity Aspect, level 1 is based on habitat group, level 2 on broad habitat type, level 3 on habitat type and level 4 on habitat detail. Figure 2.4 illustrates the hierarchical levels for the Visual and Sensory Aspect. The next task is to describe the characteristics and features that distinguish one Aspect Area or group of Aspect Areas from another. The data capture forms provide detailed sets of tick boxes from which to select key descriptive terms (Figure 2.5). Clear definitions of each term are provided for reference.

2.3.41       Central to LANDMAP is the concept of evaluation, including assessment of value, condition and trend. In relation to value, LANDMAP provides a pre-defined list of criteria for assessing the value of the Aspect Area. The Aspect Specialist is asked to assess, based on the criteria given, the overall intrinsic value of the Aspect Area to the Aspect. The specialist is required for each criterion to use a scale of:

2.3.42        An overall evaluation using the same scale is also made. The criteria put forward are generally those that are known and accepted within that specialism; and many criteria are common to several aspects. Criteria include, for example, research value, educational value, rarity/uniqueness/representativeness, priority species and habitats, threat, distinctiveness, fragmentation, scenic quality, integrity, character, documentation, survival, vulnerability and diversity. The accompanying assessment of condition evaluates the current physical health of the Aspect Area (good/fair/poor/un-assessed) at the time of the assessment; while the assessment of trend evaluates change in condition (improving/constant/declining). Both these parameters require field survey. 

2.3.43        The next section of the data capture form is headed ‘Recommendations’, and aims to provide expert comment and advice on the current and future management of the Aspect Area. Existing management is scored on a ten-point scale, an overall (open) management recommendation is made, and up to three management guidelines may be made for conserving, restoring or enhancing particular landscape characteristics or features. The degree of urgency of management is also indicated. Lastly, there is the option to assess the degree of tolerance of change of each Aspect Area to a long list of pre-defined developments and land use changes.

Use of GIS

2.3.44       In summary, the following data-sets are compiled and entered on the GIS for each Aspect Area:

2.3.45        Unlike the English countryside character approach – a basic principle of which is integrated characterisation – preparation of an overall landscape characterisation is seen as an optional extra in Wales, on the grounds that landscape character will look after itself if the individual qualities that make up the landscape are properly taken into account in decision-making.

2.3.46       Nonetheless, the LANDMAP method offers advice on how to prepare an overall landscape characterisation. It defines a hierarchical classification system and describes how to identify landscape character types and areas, essentially by overlaying the different Aspect Area maps and looking for patterns and correlations. This part of the process closely resembles the approach to landscape characterisation that is used in England. Advice is also given on how an integrated landscape characterisation can be used to prepare landscape assessments, strategies, guidelines and action plans.

Public Participation

2.3.47        The LANDMAP process requires a public perception study that aims to identify:

2.3.48       Both ‘top down’ (expert-led) and ‘bottom up’ (community-led) approaches are intended to work in parallel. The top down approach serves as an immediate point of reference for the LANDMAP study, while the bottom up approach is part of a longer-term programme of community participation.

2.3.49       The principal tool used for the top down approach is a structured household survey of at least 100 respondents per local authority area, with face to face interviews exploring landscape values, identity and preferences for change in the respondent’s local landscape character area. This is complemented by a minimum of six focus group discussions in each local authority area, to add depth to the household survey data. The findings are integrated into the GIS database as an additional layer of information for each landscape character area.

2.3.50       The bottom up approach requires each community council throughout Wales to produce its own ‘parish map’ that encapsulates and annotates the main landscape characteristics of the area. Advice on this process is provided by the local authority or by CCW, and the outputs of the exercise are again fed into the LANDMAP GIS database.

Outputs of the Assessment

2.3.51       The final output of the LANDMAP process will be a complete, consistent, hierarchical map and database describing and evaluating the five landscape Aspects. Full, quality-assured coverage for Wales is expected to be complete within around three years. In the meantime the data is already being used by local authorities and other bodies throughout Wales for a variety of purposes.

2.3.52       The primary users of LANDMAP data are the local authorities. The data can inform both development planning and development control. For example, LANDMAP data has been used by Cardiff County Council to identify Special Landscape Areas for inclusion in its Unitary Development Plan; while Vale of Glamorgan Council has used LANDMAP to prepare design guidelines for environmental and economic regeneration. These will be adopted as supplementary planning guidance, making them a material consideration in planning decisions.

2.3.53       In the Pembrokeshire Coast National Park, the LANDMAP study will form the basis for the new National Park Management Plan. It will be used to help formulate a vision of the National Park and to define the actions needed to achieve that vision. In relation to biodiversity and the historic environment, strong links have been established to Biodiversity Action Plans and to the Welsh Register of Historic Landscapes – helping to ensure consistency of approach to the management of landscape assets. LANDMAP data is also expected to guide the expansion of forestry in Wales as it will be used in the preparation of Indicative Forestry Strategies. As in England, the assessment has a particular role in relation to agri-environment schemes, offering the potential to target specific landscape characteristics and features for conservation and enhancement, as well as allowing change in those features to be monitored.

2.3.54       It is envisaged that data on the system will be regularly reviewed and updated with new material from partner organisations being added in as it becomes available. CCW will be responsible for the updating process and for passing the update information on to other organisations.

Applicability to Hong Kong

2.3.55       The LANDMAP information system contains many elements of relevance to Hong Kong. Strengths of the system are that:

2.3.56       The principal weakness of the system is its emphasis on separate assessment of different landscape aspects, rather than on integrated characterisation. This, coupled with the very high level of detail within the assessment, means that it may be difficult for a layperson to understand. It is also less useful than other approaches for explaining and communicating key landscape policy issues and options at a strategic level.

2.3.57       Overall, the LANDMAP information system provides a very useful model for landscape assessment in Hong Kong. There is much to be learnt from the rigour with which the classification and evaluation systems have been constructed; the interactive way in which the assessment has been managed; and the sound approach to public participation.

2.3.58       The system deals with a wide range of landscape types, including urban, coastal and mountainous landscapes but offers little detailed guidance on how to tackle the assessment of urban landscapes comparable to those of Hong Kong.

Case Study 3 - Cleveland Bioregional Plan, Ohio, USA

Introduction and Background to the Assessment

2.3.59       Landscape planning has developed very differently in North America compared to the UK and indeed Europe. There are no common, agreed methods and no area-wide assessments at national or even at state or county level in most cases. This reflects the rather poorly-developed land use planning system, and the wide variation in approaches taken to land management by different government departments. Work similar to what we would call landscape assessment falls into t